English Grammar

Cards · 102

Subject-Verb Agreement

A singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Subject-Verb Agreement with 'Neither / Nor'

The verb agrees with the subject closest to it in the sentence.

Indefinite Pronouns Agreement (Everyone, Somebody, Each)

Pronouns like 'everyone', 'each', and 'somebody' take singular verbs.

Collective Nouns Agreement

Singular when the group acts as a single unit; plural when individual members act separately.

A vs. An

Use 'a' before words starting with consonant sounds and 'an' before vowel sounds.

Fewer vs. Less

Use 'fewer' for countable items and 'less' for uncountable quantities or degrees.

Much vs. Many

Use 'many' with countable plural nouns and 'much' with uncountable singular nouns.

Amount vs. Number

Use 'number' for things that can be counted individually and 'amount' for bulk quantities.

Who vs. Whom

Use 'who' as the subject of a clause and 'whom' as the object of a verb or preposition.

That vs. Which (Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive)

Use 'that' for essential restrictive clauses and 'which' with commas for non-essential clauses.

Lie vs. Lay

'Lie' means to recline and takes no object; 'lay' means to place something and takes a direct object.

Rise vs. Raise

'Rise' is intransitive meaning to go up on one's own; 'raise' is transitive and requires a direct object.

Sit vs. Set

'Sit' is intransitive meaning to be seated; 'set' is transitive meaning to place an object.

Its vs. It's

'Its' is the possessive pronoun; 'it's' is the contraction for 'it is' or 'it has'.

Their vs. There vs. They're

'Their' indicates possession, 'there' indicates location or existence, and 'they're' means 'they are'.

Your vs. You're

'Your' is a possessive adjective; 'you're' is the contraction of 'you are'.

Whose vs. Who's

'Whose' indicates possession; 'who's' is the contraction of 'who is' or 'who has'.

Affect vs. Effect

'Affect' is typically a verb meaning to influence; 'effect' is usually a noun meaning a result.

Complement vs. Compliment

'Complement' means to complete or enhance; 'compliment' refers to praise or flattery.

Principal vs. Principle

'Principal' means chief, main, or a school head; 'principle' refers to a fundamental rule or truth.

Stationary vs. Stationery

'Stationary' means not moving; 'stationery' refers to writing materials and paper.

Farther vs. Further

Use 'farther' for measurable physical distance and 'further' for metaphorical distance or advancement.

Comprise vs. Compose

The whole comprises the parts; parts compose the whole. Never say 'is comprised of'.

Continuous vs. Continual

'Continuous' means uninterrupted in time; 'continual' means frequently recurring with interruptions.

Dangling Modifiers

A modifying phrase must logically and clearly attach to the subject immediately following it.

Misplaced Modifiers

Place modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify to prevent unintended meanings.

Squinting Modifiers

Avoid placing an adverb where it could modify either the word before it or the word after it.

Parallel Structure

Items in a list, series, or comparison must share the exact same grammatical pattern.

Run-on Sentences (Fused Sentences)

Two independent clauses cannot be joined without punctuation or a coordinating conjunction.

Comma Splice

Two independent clauses cannot be joined solely by a comma; use a semicolon or coordinating conjunction.

Sentence Fragments

A complete sentence must contain at least one independent clause with a subject and finite verb.

FANBOYS (Coordinating Conjunctions)

For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So connect equal grammatical units; use a comma before them when joining clauses.

Oxford (Serial) Comma

The optional comma placed immediately before the coordinating conjunction in a series of three or more items.

Semicolon Usage

Links two closely related independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Colon Usage

Introduces a list, quote, or explanation following a grammatically complete independent clause.

Em Dash Usage

Used to create an emphatic pause, break in thought, or set off parenthetical information.

Hyphen in Compound Modifiers

Hyphenate two or more words acting as a single modifier when they precede the noun they modify.

Apostrophe for Plural Nouns Ending in -s

Form possession for plural nouns ending in -s by adding only an apostrophe at the end.

Apostrophe for Singular Nouns Ending in -s

Most style guides form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and an s (e.g., James's).

Joint vs. Separate Possession

Add 's only to the final name for shared ownership; add 's to both names for individual ownership.

Past Simple vs. Present Perfect

Use past simple for completed actions at specific past times; use present perfect for ongoing or unspecified times.

Subjunctive Mood for Counterfactuals

Use 'were' instead of 'was' in conditional clauses expressing wishes or hypothetical scenarios.

Conditional Sentences (Zero)

Expresses general truths and scientific facts using present simple in both the 'if' and main clauses.

Conditional Sentences (First)

Expresses real future possibilities using 'if' + present simple, followed by 'will' + base verb.

Conditional Sentences (Second)

Expresses unreal or hypothetical situations using 'if' + past simple, followed by 'would' + base verb.

Conditional Sentences (Third)

Expresses regret or unreal past events using 'if' + past perfect, followed by 'would have' + past participle.

Split Infinitives

Placing an adverb between 'to' and the verb is acceptable in modern usage if it improves clarity.

Ending a Sentence with a Preposition

Permissible and natural in modern English, especially when avoiding unnatural or stiff phrasing.

Double Negatives

Using two negative words within the same clause cancels the negation, creating an unintended positive.

Since vs. Because

'Because' expresses cause and effect; 'since' primarily marks time, though casual usage allows both.

E.g. vs. I.e.

'E.g.' means 'for example' (exempli gratia); 'i.e.' means 'that is' or 'in other words' (id est).

Between vs. Among

Use 'between' for distinct, individual items; use 'among' for items in an undefined group or collective mass.

Mixed Conditionals

Combine a past condition with a present outcome or a ongoing condition with a past outcome.

Active vs. Passive Voice

In active voice the subject performs the action, while in passive voice the subject receives the action.

Accept vs. Except

Use 'accept' as a verb meaning to receive and 'except' as a preposition meaning excluding.

Ensure vs. Insure vs. Assure

'Ensure' means make certain, 'insure' relates to financial protection, and 'assure' means remove someone's doubt.

Advice vs. Advise

Use 'advice' as an uncountable noun and 'advise' as the verb meaning to give counsel.

Breathe vs. Breath

Use 'breathe' as the verb for inhaling and exhaling, and 'breath' as the noun for the air inhaled.

Lose vs. Loose

Use 'lose' as a verb meaning to misplace, and 'loose' as an adjective meaning not tight or unbound.

Discreet vs. Discrete

Use 'discreet' to mean careful and unobtrusive, and 'discrete' to mean distinct, separate, or unconnected.

Emigrate vs. Immigrate

Use 'emigrate' when leaving one's country and 'immigrate' when settling permanently into a new one.

Allusion vs. Illusion

An 'allusion' is an indirect reference, whereas an 'illusion' is a deceptive appearance or false impression.

Capital vs. Capitol

Use 'capital' for wealth, uppercase letters, or primary cities; use 'capitol' for the specific legislative building.

Elicit vs. Illicit

Use 'elicit' as a verb meaning to draw forth, and 'illicit' as an adjective meaning illegal or forbidden.

Ingenious vs. Disingenuous

'Ingenious' means clever or inventive, while 'disingenuous' means deceitful, insincere, or hypocritical.

Historic vs. Historical

Use 'historic' for events of great importance and 'historical' for anything pertaining to history or the past.

Beside vs. Besides

Use 'beside' to mean next to or at the side of, and 'besides' to mean in addition to or moreover.

Everyday vs. Every Day

Use 'everyday' as an adjective meaning routine or ordinary, and 'every day' as an adverbial phrase meaning daily.

Into vs. In To

Use 'into' for movement or transformation, and 'in to' when 'in' forms part of a phrasal verb before 'to'.

Onto vs. On To

Use 'onto' for moving toward a surface, and 'on to' when 'on' belongs to a verb or means onward.

Alot vs. A Lot vs. Allot

'A lot' means a large amount, 'allot' means to distribute portions, and 'alot' is an incorrect nonstandard spelling.

Borrow vs. Lend

Use 'borrow' when taking something temporarily and 'lend' when giving something temporarily to someone else.

Gerund vs. Present Participle

Both end in -ing, but a gerund functions as a noun while a participle functions as a verb or adjective.

Possessive Nouns Preceding Gerunds

Use a possessive noun or pronoun before a gerund to show who or what is performing the action.

Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning, while intransitive verbs do not.

Stative Verbs vs. Dynamic Verbs

Dynamic verbs express actions and take continuous tenses; stative verbs express states and usually do not.

Predicate Adjectives vs. Predicate Nouns

A predicate adjective modifies the subject after a linking verb; a predicate noun renames the subject.

Linking Verbs

Verbs like 'seem', 'be', or 'taste' that connect the subject to a subject complement rather than showing action.

Reflexive vs. Intensive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject for meaning; intensive pronouns only add emphasis and can be removed.

Reciprocal Pronouns (Each other vs. One another)

Use 'each other' when referring to two individuals and 'one another' when referring to three or more.

Demonstrative Pronouns vs. Demonstrative Adjectives

Pronouns ('this', 'that') stand alone, whereas demonstrative adjectives directly modify an accompanying noun.

Correlative Conjunctions

Conjunction pairs like 'either/or' or 'both/and' that connect grammatically equal sentence elements.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Words like 'although', 'because', and 'unless' that link a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Adverbs like 'however' or 'therefore' used with a semicolon and comma to transition between two main clauses.

Inverted Sentence Structure

Placing the verb or auxiliary verb before the subject, often used after negative adverbs for emphasis.

Dummy Pronouns (Expletives 'There' and 'It')

Words occupying the subject position without real semantic content, shifting the actual subject after the verb.

Parenthetical Elements

Extra non-essential information set off by commas, dashes, or parentheses that can be omitted without loss of meaning.

Appositives

A noun or noun phrase placed next to another word to rename or explain it, often enclosed by commas.

Elliptical Clauses

Clauses where words are intentionally omitted because the missing words are easily understood from context.

Cumulative vs. Coordinate Adjectives

Coordinate adjectives require commas and can be reordered; cumulative adjectives build meaning in order without commas.

Order of Adjectives

Typical sequence: quantity, opinion, size, physical quality, shape, age, color, origin, material, type, purpose.

Comparative vs. Superlative Adjectives

Use comparative (-er or 'more') for two entities; use superlative (-est or 'most') for three or more entities.

Absolute Adjectives

Adjectives like 'unique', 'perfect', and 'dead' that represent binary states and cannot logically take degrees.

Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns have plural forms and take 'a/an'; uncountable nouns lack plurals and denote masses or abstractions.

Irregular Plural Nouns

Nouns that do not form plurals with -s or -es, changing vowels ('foot'/'feet') or retaining the base ('sheep').

En Dash Usage

Punctuation mark used predominantly to indicate spans of time, ranges of numbers, or compound connections.

Brackets vs. Parentheses

Use parentheses for supplemental author notes; use brackets for editor additions or changes within direct quotes.

Ellipsis Usage

Three spaced or unspaced dots indicating an omission of words from a quote or a pause in thought.

Punctuation with Quotation Marks (US Style)

Commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation marks, regardless of sentence logic.

Punctuation with Quotation Marks (UK Style)

Commas and periods are placed inside only if they belong to the quoted material, otherwise outside.

Slash (Virgule) Usage

Used to denote alternatives ('and/or'), fractions, line breaks in quoted poetry, or paired relationships.

Whether vs. If

Use 'whether' when presenting two alternatives or choices and 'if' for conditional clauses.