Neuroscience Fundamentals

Cards · 53

Neuron

The fundamental excitable cell of the nervous system that processes and transmits information via electrical and chemical signals.

Action Potential

A rapid, temporary change in a neuron membrane potential that propagates electrical impulses along the axon.

Synapse

The specialized junction where a neuron communicates with a target cell using neurotransmitters or direct electrical current.

Dendrite

Branch-like cellular extensions that receive synaptic inputs from other neurons and conduct signals toward the soma.

Axon

A long, slender projection of a nerve cell that conducts action potentials away from the cell body toward target synapses.

Myelin Sheath

A lipid-rich insulating layer surrounding axons that significantly increases the speed of electrical impulse transmission.

Node of Ranvier

Periodic gaps in the myelin sheath along an axon where action potentials regenerate via saltatory conduction.

Neurotransmitter

Endogenous chemical messengers released by neurons to transmit signals across chemical synapses to target cells.

Astrocyte

A star-shaped glial cell providing metabolic support to neurons, regulating blood flow, and maintaining the blood-brain barrier.

Oligodendrocyte

A type of glial cell responsible for producing and maintaining the myelin sheath on axons within the central nervous system.

Schwann Cell

The primary glial cell in the peripheral nervous system responsible for myelinating single peripheral nerve axons.

Microglia

Resident immune cells of the central nervous system that scavenge damaged neurons, plaques, and infectious agents.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, facilitating interhemispheric communication.

Hippocampus

A seahorse-shaped limbic structure essential for converting short-term memories into long-term memories and spatial navigation.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped limbic structure critical for processing emotions, detecting threats, and fear conditioning.

Thalamus

The major subcortical relay center that processes and directs sensory and motor information to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A vital brain region regulating homeostasis, body temperature, hunger, thirst, circadian rhythms, and endocrine hormone release.

Cerebellum

A structure located at the base of the brain responsible for motor coordination, precision, balance, and procedural motor learning.

Medulla Oblongata

The lower half of the brainstem controlling autonomic functions essential for life, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Pons

A brainstem structure that relays signals between the cerebrum and cerebellum and assists in regulating sleep and respiration.

Midbrain

The uppermost portion of the brainstem involved in motor movement, auditory and visual processing, and temperature regulation.

Frontal Lobe

The anterior cerebral cortex region governing executive function, decision-making, voluntary movement, and expressive language.

Parietal Lobe

The cortical region that integrates somatosensory information, including touch, temperature, spatial awareness, and proprioception.

Occipital Lobe

The posterior region of the cerebral cortex dedicated primarily to receiving and processing visual information.

Temporal Lobe

The lateral cortical region responsible for auditory processing, language comprehension, and long-term memory formation.

Prefrontal Cortex

The anterior frontal lobe region mediating working memory, cognitive flexibility, impulse control, and social behavior.

Primary Motor Cortex

Located in the precentral gyrus, it generates neural impulses that control the execution of voluntary muscle movements.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Located in the postcentral gyrus, it processes tactile sensations such as pressure, pain, vibration, and temperature from the body.

Broca Area

A region in the left frontal lobe essential for motor speech production and expressive language capabilities.

Wernicke Area

A region in the left superior temporal gyrus crucial for the comprehension and semantic interpretation of spoken and written language.

Basal Ganglia

A group of subcortical nuclei that orchestrate voluntary motor control, habit formation, and action selection.

Substantia Nigra

A dopaminergic basal ganglia structure critical for reward processing and smooth voluntary movement; damaged in Parkinson disease.

Striatum

The primary input nucleus of the basal ganglia, composed of the caudate and putamen, which facilitates motor and reward pathways.

Nucleus Accumbens

A key forebrain region mediating the neural circuit for motivation, pleasure, aversion, and reinforcement learning.

Limbic System

An interconnected set of brain structures supporting emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction.

Blood-Brain Barrier

A selective semipermeable border of endothelial cells and astrocytes protecting the brain from circulating pathogens and toxins.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A clear fluid circulating in brain ventricles providing mechanical cushioning, immunological protection, and metabolic waste clearance.

Ventricles

A network of communicating internal cavities within the brain where cerebrospinal fluid is produced and circulated.

Choroid Plexus

A vascular plexus of specialized ependymal cells located inside brain ventricles that actively produces cerebrospinal fluid.

Pituitary Gland

The master endocrine gland located below the hypothalamus, secreting hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Pineal Gland

A small endocrine gland producing the hormone melatonin, which modulates sleep patterns in both circadian and seasonal cycles.

Insular Cortex

A deep cortical region involved in interoception, self-awareness, emotional processing, and the perception of pain and disgust.

Cingulate Cortex

A limbic cortex fold involved in emotion formation, error detection, conflict monitoring, and autonomic autonomic control.

Long-Term Potentiation

A persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, forming the cellular basis of learning and memory.

Long-Term Depression

An activity-dependent reduction in the efficacy of neuronal synapses, essential for clearing old memory traces and motor coordination.

Neurogenesis

The biological process by which new nervous system cells are generated from neural stem and progenitor cells.

Synaptic Plasticity

The biological capacity of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time in response to changes in their electrical activity.

GABA

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mature mammalian brain, hyperpolarizing neurons to reduce network excitability.

Glutamate

The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, driving fast synaptic transmission and synaptic plasticity.

Dopamine

A monoamine neurotransmitter strongly modulating motor control, motivation, reward reinforcement, and executive cognitive functioning.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter primarily synthesized in the raphe nuclei regulating mood, appetite, circadian rhythms, and sleep.

Acetylcholine

A major neurotransmitter operating across the neuromuscular junction and modulating arousal, attention, and memory in the brain.

Norepinephrine

A catecholamine neurotransmitter and hormone released by the locus coeruleus that drives physiological arousal and vigilance.