Modules 7 and 8

Cards · 52

Memory encoding

The initial process of converting sensory input into a usable mental representation.

Memory storage

The retention of encoded information over time within sensory, short-term, or long-term systems.

Memory retrieval

The cognitive process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

Sensory memory

Brief storage of raw perceptual information, lasting from fractions of a second up to a few seconds.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory lasting approximately one-quarter to one-half of a second.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory capable of holding acoustic traces for three to four seconds.

Short-term memory (STM)

A temporary store holding a limited amount of information, typically for 15 to 30 seconds without rehearsal.

Working memory

An active system that simultaneously processes, manipulates, and temporarily holds information.

Central executive

The component of working memory that directs attention, coordinates subsystems, and manages cognitive tasks.

Phonological loop

The working memory component that temporarily holds and manipulates verbal and acoustic information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

The component of working memory dedicated to maintaining visual imagery and spatial relationships.

Chunking

Grouping discrete items into larger, meaningful units to expand short-term memory capacity.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repetitive mental or vocal recitation used primarily to prolong information in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new material to pre-existing knowledge to facilitate long-term memory encoding.

Long-term memory (LTM)

The theoretically limitless storage repository for retaining knowledge, skills, and experiences indefinitely.

Explicit (declarative) memory

Conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, life events, and personal experiences.

Episodic memory

Declarative memory for personally experienced events, contextualized by time and place.

Semantic memory

Declarative memory for general knowledge, concepts, facts, and language rules independent of personal context.

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Unconscious influence of past experiences on current behavior without intentional recollection.

Procedural memory

Implicit memory for motor skills, cognitive habits, and classically conditioned behavioral responses.

Priming

Enhanced identification or processing of a stimulus resulting from recent prior exposure to it.

Serial position effect

The tendency to best recall items located at the beginning and end of a sequential list.

Primacy effect

Superior recall of the first few items in a list due to greater opportunity for long-term rehearsal.

Recency effect

Enhanced recall of the final items in a list because they remain active in short-term memory.

Recall vs. Recognition

Recall requires retrieving information without cues; recognition requires identifying previously encountered stimuli.

Encoding specificity principle

Retrieval succeeds best when the conditions at retrieval match those present during encoding.

State-dependent memory

Improved recall when an individual's internal physiological or emotional state matches the encoding state.

Context-dependent memory

Enhanced retrieval when the external physical environment matches the learning environment.

Proactive interference

Occurs when older memories disrupt or impede the retrieval of newly learned information.

Retroactive interference

Occurs when recently acquired information disrupts or impairs the recall of previously stored memories.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new long-term explicit memories following neurological trauma.

Retrograde amnesia

The loss of memories formed prior to the occurrence of brain injury or psychological trauma.

Misinformation effect

Post-event exposure to misleading information distorts an individual's recollection of the original event.

Cognition

The mental action or process of acquiring, storing, manipulating, and applying knowledge and understanding.

Mental concept

A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people together.

Prototype

The best or most representative mental example of a particular cognitive category.

Algorithm

A step-by-step, methodical problem-solving rule or procedure that guarantees a correct solution.

Heuristic

A cognitive shortcut or rule of thumb that facilitates fast decision-making but risks error.

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the probability of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype in one's mind.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information that supports pre-existing beliefs.

Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem using solutions that worked previously, ignoring novel approaches.

Functional fixedness

A cognitive limitation where an object is viewed solely in terms of its traditional, intended use.

Framing effect

The way information is presented or phrased dramatically influences decisions and judgments.

Phoneme

The smallest distinctive unit of sound in a spoken language that distinguishes one word from another.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of language that carries distinct semantic meaning, including root words and affixes.

Syntax

The grammatical rules governing the order and structure of words in sentences within a language.

Semantics

The system of linguistic rules used to derive meaning from words, phrases, and sentences.

Linguistic determinism

The hypothesis that language directly shapes, constrains, and determines thought and perception.

General intelligence (g factor)

A broad mental capacity proposed by Spearman that underlies performance across varied cognitive domains.

Fluid intelligence

The innate capacity to reason abstractly, identify patterns, and solve novel problems independently of experience.

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, and verbal skills acquired through education and life experience.